Understanding call and put option payoffs is a must for mastering derivatives in the CFA® or FRM® exams—and for real-world trading strategies. This guide breaks down option payoff and profit formulas, shows you how to calculate each, and includes charts…

Bond valuation is an application of discounted cash flow analysis. The general approach to bond valuation is to utilize a series of spot rates to reflect the timing of future cash flows. Value, Price, and TVM Value can be described as…

Covariance The covariance is a measure of the degree of co-movement between two random variables. For instance, we could be interested in the degree of co-movement between the rate of interest and the rate of inflation. X = interest rate…