Study Notes for CFA® Level III – Al ...
Reading 27: Hedge Fund Strategies Los 27 a: Discuss how hedge fund strategies... Read More
Historical statistical approaches involve the collection of data from past returns and using them to extrapolate future performance. Using a pure-historical returns approach to forecast equity market returns is complicated because equities have a high standard deviation relative to their mean returns. This means data can often be misleading.
Generally, developed economies’ equity returns tend to range from 4.5% to 9.5%.
Building on the constant growth, or Gordon Growth Model, is the Grinold-Kroner Model. While simplistic, the constant growth model provides a distinct advantage over historical estimates. It attempts to look toward the future to project development and growth rather than simply capturing what the past has delivered. The Grinold-Kroner Model expands on the constant growth model by allowing for adjustments from share repurchases and overall market valuations.
$$ E(R_i) \approx \frac {D}{P} + (\% \Delta E – \% \Delta S) + \% \frac {\Delta P}{E} $$
Where:
\(E(R_i)\) = Expected equity return.
\(\frac {D}{P}\) = Dividend yield.
\(\% \Delta E\) = Expected percentage change in total earnings.
\(\% \Delta S\) = Expected percentage change in shares outstanding.
\(\% \frac {\Delta P}{E}\) = Expected percentage change in the P/E ratio.
It is important to note that the equation contains a negative relationship with share repurchases. A rise in share repurchases will decrease the expected equity market premium. All other components of the Gordon Growth Model are present, including a breakout for inflationary expectations and a change in the price-to-earnings ratio.
The Singer-Terhaar Model builds on the international CAPM approach by assuming a wholly segmented market, then a completely integrated market, and then adding an adjustment for the degree of integration.
International CAPM
$$ R_i = R_f + \beta(R_m – R_f) $$
Where:
\(R_i\) = Expected return.
\(R_f\) = Risk-free rate.
\(\beta\) = Beta.
\(R_m\) = Expected equity market return.
$$ \begin{align*} ERP_i & = \left[ \left(\text{Degree of integration} \right) \times \sigma_i \times \rho_{(i,m)} \times \frac {(ERP_m)}{\sigma_m} \right] \\ & + \left[ \left(\text{Degree of segmentation}) \times \sigma_i \times \frac {((ERP_m)}{\sigma_m} \right) \right] \end{align*} $$
Where:
The equity risk premium is the return over and above the risk-free rate. It is hard to forecast the equity premium, and analysts have to decide on the degree of integration/segmentation. It is noteworthy that equity and bond markets of developed countries are highly integrated; hence, a range of 0.75–0.90 is suitable. On the other hand, equity and bond markets of emerging markets are less integrated, so a range of 0.50–0.75 is more appropriate. Analysts are advised to couple forecasts with other methods of analysis.
Question
Which of the following inputs to the Grinold-Kroner Model will most likely reduce the expectations for an equity market premium?
- An increase in growth.
- An increase in the payout ration.
- An increase in share repurchases.
Solution
The correct answer is C.
An increase in outstanding shares would decrease the expected return. Note that share repurchases are a way of returning cash to investors. Shares outstanding are the denominator in the price per share formula, while total equity is the numerator. Therefore, all things equal, a larger denominator will reduce the quotient, which is the price per share. This is synonymous with capital depreciation or reducing return.
A is incorrect. An increase in growth would increase the expectations for an equity market premium. The Grinold-Kroner Model includes the real growth rate in earnings as one of its inputs. An increase in the real growth rate in earnings would increase the expected return on a stock or stock market index.
B is incorrect. An increase in the payout ratio would also increase the expectations for an equity market premium. The Grinold-Kroner Model includes dividend yield as one of its inputs. An increase in the payout ratio would increase the dividend yield, increasing the expected return on a stock or stock market index.
Asset Allocation: Learning Module 2: Capital Market Expectations – Part 2 Forecasting Asset Class Returns; Los 2(c) Discuss approaches to setting expectations for equity investment market returns