Economic Indicators over the Business Cycle
As we will discuss below, the use of resources necessary for the production of goods and services fluctuates during a business cycle. Fluctuations in Workforce and Company Costs Recovery In this phase, activity levels start to increase, closing the gap…
Credit Cycles
Credit cycles describe the changing availability and pricing of credit. They describe the growth in the private sector credit, i.e., its availability and usage of loans. Credit cycles are tied to the real economy. When the economy is strong, lenders…
Business Cycle and Its Phases
What Is the Business Cycle? The business cycle refers to the recurring pattern of expansion and contraction in economic activity over time. Economies naturally move through periods of growth, slowing activity, recession, and recovery as production, employment, inflation, and consumer…
Spot Curve, Par curve and Forward Curve
Yields-to-maturity for zero-coupon government bonds could be analyzed for a full range of maturities called the government bond spot curve (or zero curves). Government spot rates are assumed to be risk-free. Spot Curve The spot curve is upward-sloping and flattens…
Par and Forward Rates
Par Rates A par rate is the yield-to-maturity that equates the present value of a bond’s cash flows to its par value (typically \(100\%\) of face value). Spot rates play a pivotal role in determining par rates. For a bond…
Spot Rates, Spot Curve, and Bond Pricing
Spot Rates Spot rates are the market discount rates for default-risk-free zero-coupon bonds. Unlike typical bonds that offer periodic interest payments, these bonds are sold at a discount and repaid at face value upon maturity. Sometimes referred to as “zero…
Identifying the Type of Market Structures
Monopoly markets and situations where companies hold significant pricing power can result in market inefficiencies, as the monopolies tend to constrain output in order to sell at higher prices. Due to this, many countries have a competition law that regulates…
Oligopoly Competition
What Is Oligopoly Competition? An oligopoly is a market structure in which a small number of large firms dominate an industry. Because only a few firms compete, each company’s pricing and production decisions directly influence its competitors, making strategic decision-making…
Monopolistic Competition
What Is Monopolistic Competition? Monopolistic competition is a market structure in which many firms sell similar but differentiated products. Because products are not identical, firms have some ability to influence prices through branding, quality, customer service or product features. Examples…
Characteristics of Market Structures
What Are Market Structures? Market structures describe the competitive environment in which firms operate. They determine how prices are set, how much competition exists and how easily new firms can enter or leave a market. In economics, market structures are…
